STUDY GUIDE FOR FINAL EXAM

    NB:  Actual practice questions are available in the library on reserve.  

CHAPTER 8 – STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE US

You will need to have an understanding of the following concepts:

Stratification and Social Inequality: The term social inequality describes a condition in which members of a society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Some degree of social inequality characterizes every society. When a system of social inequality is based on a hierarchy of groups, sociologists refer to it as stratification: a structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society. Ascribed status is a social position "assigned" to a person without regard for that person's unique characteristics or talents. By contrast, achieved status is a social position attained by a person largely through his or her own effort. 

The Class System of the United States: Sociologist Daniel Rossides has conceptualized the class system of the United States using a five-class model. Rossides categorized about 1 to 2 percent of the people in the United States as upper-class. By contrast, the lower class, consisting of approximately 20 to 25 percent of the population, disproportionately consists of Blacks, Hispanics, single mothers with dependant children, and people who cannot find regular work or must make do with low-paying jobs. Sandwiched between the upper and lower classes in Rossides's model are the upper middle class, the lower middle class, and the working class. 

Karl Marx’s View of Class Differentiation: Karl Marx viewed class differentiation as the crucial determinant of social, economic, and political inequality. Marx focused on the two classes that began to emerge as the estate system declined, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie, or capitalist class, owns the means of production, such as factories and machinery, while the proletariat is the working class. According to Marx, exploitation of the proletariat will inevitably lead to the destruction of the capitalist system. Ultimately, the proletariat will overthrow the rule of the bourgeoisie and the government (which Marx saw as representing the interests of capitalists. 

The Functionalist View of Stratification: In the view of Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions. Davis and Moore argue that stratification is universal and that social inequality is necessary so that people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions. However, critics note that even if stratification is inevitable, the functionalist explanation for differential rewards does not explain the wide disparity between the rich and the poor. 

The Conflict View of Stratification: Contemporary conflict theorists believe that human beings are prone to conflict over such scarce resources as wealth, status, and power. However, where Marx focused primarily on class conflict, more recent theorists have extended this analysis to include conflicts based on gender, race, age, and other dimensions. Conflict theorists see stratification as a major source of societal tension and conflict. They do not agree that stratification is functional for a society or that it serves as a source of stability. Rather, conflict sociologists argue that stratification will inevitably lead to instability and to social change.

Wealth and Income in the United States: By all measures, income in the United States is distributed unevenly. In 1999, the top fifth (or 20 percent) of the nation, earning $102,300 after-tax income, accounted for 50 percent of total wages and salaries. The income gap between the richest and the poorest groups in the United States is widening. Wealth in the United States is much more unevenly distributed than income. In 1997 the richest fifth of the population held 85 percent of the nation’s wealth.

Poverty in the United States: Approximately one out of every nine people in the United States lives below the poverty line established by the federal government. Included among the poor of the United States are elderly people, children living in single-parent families with their mothers, and over 10,000 men in military service who cannot adequately support their large families. In 1995, 45 percent of poor people in the United States were living in central cities. According to many observers, the plight of the urban poor is growing worse because of the devastating interplay of inadequate education and limited employment prospects. William Julius Wilson and other social scientists have used the term underclass to describe long-term poor people who lack training and skills. 

Social Mobility in the United States: The belief in upward mobility is an important aspect of our society. Occupational mobility (which can be intergenerational or intragenerational) has been common among males. However, occupational mobility among African Americans remains sharply limited by racial discrimination. The impact of education on mobility has diminished somewhat in the last decade. Gender, like race, is an important factor in one’s mobility. In contrast to men, women have a rather large range of clerical occupations open to them. But the modest salary ranges and limited prospects for advancement in many of these positions mean that there is not much possibility of upward mobility. 

Rethinking Welfare in North America and Europe: In 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act ended the long-standing federal guarantee of assistance to every poor family that meets eligibility requirements. It set a lifetime limit of five years of welfare benefits for recipients and required that all able-bodied adults work after two years of benefits (although hardship exceptions are allowed). From a conflict perspective, this backlash against welfare recipients reflects deep fears and hostility toward the nation’s urban and predominantly African-American and Hispanic underclass. Those who take a conflict perspective also urge policy makers and the general public to look closely at corporate welfare, the tax breaks, direct payments, and grants that the government makes to corporations, rather than to focus on the relatively small allowances being given to welfare mothers and their children. 

CHAPTER 10 – RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY

You will need to have an understanding of the following concepts:

Racial and Ethnic Groups: Sociologists frequently distinguish between racial and ethnic groups. The term racial group is used to describe a group that is set apart from others because of obvious physical differences. Whites, African Americans, and Asian Americans are all considered racial groups in the United States. Unlike racial groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. In the United States, Puerto Ricans, Jews, and Polish Americans are all categorized as ethnic groups.

Minority Groups: A minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. Sociologists have identified five basic properties of a minority group: (1) members share physical or cultural characteristics that distinguish them from the dominant group; (2) members experience unequal treatment; (3) membership in the group is not voluntary; people are born into the group; (4) minority group members have a strong sense of group solidarity; and (5) members generally marry others from the same group.

Biological Significance and Social Construction of Race: Viewed from a biological perspective, the term race would refer to a genetically isolated group with distinctive gene frequencies. But it is impossible to scientifically define or identify such a group. Social construction of race refers to the process by which people come to define a group as a race based in part on physical characteristics but also on historical, cultural, and economic factors. 

Prejudice: Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority. One important and widespread form of prejudice is racism, the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior. When racism prevails in a society, members of subordinate groups generally experience prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation. 

Studying Race and Ethnicity: Viewing race from the macro level, functionalists observe that racial prejudice and discrimination serve positive functions for dominant groups, whereas conflict theorists see the economic structure as a central factor in the exploitation of minorities. The micro-level analysis of interactionist researchers stresses the manner in which everyday contact between people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds contributes to tolerance or leads to hostility. 

CHAPTER 11 – STRATIFICATION BY GENDER

You will need to have an understanding of the following concepts:

Social Construction of Gender: In studying gender, sociologists are interested in the gender-role socialization that leads females and males to behave differently. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between women and men. Gender roles are evident not only in our work and behavior but also in how we react to others. We are constantly "doing gender" without realizing it. We socially construction our behavior so that male-female differences are either created or exaggerated. 

Gender Role Socialization in the United States: According to traditional gender-role patterns that have been influential in the socialization of children in the United States, boys must be masculine (active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant), whereas girls must be feminine (soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive). It is adults, of course, who play a critical role in guiding children into those gender roles deemed appropriate in a society. Parents are normally the first and most crucial agents of socialization. But other adults, older siblings, the mass media, and religious and educational institutions also exert an important influence on gender role socialization in the United States. 

The Functionalist View of Gender Stratification: Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability. Sociologists Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales argue that in order to function most efficiently, the family requires adults who will specialize in particular roles. They contend that women take the expressive, emotionally supportive role, with the two complementing each other. Parsons and Bales do not explicitly endorse traditional gender roles, but they imply that a division of tasks between spouses is functional for the family unit.

The Conflict View of Gender Stratification: Conflict theorists see gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). If we use an analogy to Marx’s analysis of class conflict, we can say that males are like the bourgeois, or capitalists; they control most of the society’s wealth, prestige, and power. Females are like the proletarians, or workers; they can acquire valuable resources only by following the dictates of their "bosses." 

The Feminist Perspective: A significant component of the conflict approach to gender stratification draws on feminist theory. Feminist sociologists would find little to disagree with in the conflict theorists’ perspective. But the feminist perspective would argue that the very discussion of women and society, however well meaning, has been distorted by the exclusion of women from academic thought, including sociology. For most of the history of sociology, studies were conducted on male subjects or about male-led groups and organizations, and the findings were generalized to all people. 

Women: The Oppressed Majority: When one looks at the political structure of the United States, women remain noticeably underrepresented. No woman has ever served as president of the United States, vice president, Speaker of the House of Representatives, or Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. This lack of women in decision-making positions is evidence of women’s powerlessness in the United States. If we apply the model of a minority or subordinate group to the situation of women in this country, we find that a numerical majority group fits our definition of a subordinate minority. Women can be said to suffer both from individual acts of sexism (such as sexist remarks and acts of violence) and from institutional sexism. All the major institutions of our society are controlled by men. These institutions, in their "normal," day-to-day operations, often discriminate against women and perpetuate sexism. 

Women in the Workforce of the United States: Women's participation in the paid labor force increased steadily throughout the 20^th century. A majority of women are now members of the paid labor force, not full-time homemakers. Unfortunately, women entering the job market find their options restricted in important ways. Particularly damaging to women workers is occupational segregation, or confinement to sex-typed "women’s jobs." Women earn much less money than men do in the paid labor force of the United States. Women from all groups and men from minority groups sometimes encounter attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents them from reaching their full potential. The glass-ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment. 

Social Consequences of Women’s Employment: Studies indicate that there continues to be a clear gender gap in the performance of housework, although the differences are narrowing. The most recent study finds women doing more housework and spending more time on child care than men, whether it be on a workday or when off work. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has used the phrase "second shift" to describe the double burden—work outside the home followed by child care and housework—that many women face and few men share equitably. 

Women: The Emergence of a Collective Consciousness: The feminist movement of the United States was born in upstate New York, in a town called Seneca Falls, in the summer of 1848. Ultimately, the early feminists won many victories, among them the passage and ratification of the 19^th Amendment to the Constitution, which granted women the right to vote in national elections beginning in 1920. The second wave of feminism in the United States emerged in the 1960s and came into full force in the 1970s. A sense of "sisterhood," much like the class consciousness that Marx hoped would emerge in the proletariat, became evident. Individual women identified their interests with those of the collectivity women. No longer were they "happy" in submissive, subordinate roles ("false consciousness" in Marxist terms). 

Minority Women: Double Jeopardy: Many women experience differential treatment not only because of gender but because of race and ethnicity as well. These citizens face a "double jeopardy," subordinate status twice defined. A disproportionate share of this low-status group is also impoverished, so that the double jeopardy effectively becomes a triple jeopardy. Activists among minority women do not agree on whether priority should be granted to fighting for sexual equality or to eliminating inequality among racial and ethnic groups. (308)